Mapping Organizational Culture Schemas Based on Correlational Class Analysis: A Tutorial
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Main Article Content
Luciano Rossoni
Clayton Pereira Gonçalves
Mônica Pereira da Silva
Alex Ferreira Gonçalves
Abstract
Context: organizational culture tends to be investigated based on organizational consensus degree, even when it is seen as shared meanings. However, sharing meanings does not imply having the same opinions. On the contrary, there may be agreement on which cultural elements are relevant, even when opinions differ from each other, a fact that enables individuals to share cultural schemas, although they disagree with each other’s answers. Objective: we aim to use a scale of organizational values adapted to the Brazilian context to map cultural schemas based on a survey conducted with 207 workers from different companies. Method: recent advancements in the cultural cognition field have enabled the present tutorial article to map organizational culture schemas based on correlational class analysis. This method divides the sample into schematic classes by listing respondents based on the linear dependence between answers given to a questionnaire, rather than on agreement between respondents. Results: two different schematic classes (reactive and resilient) that condition the effect of attitudes and organizational structure on employee appreciation and satisfaction. Conclusions: besides providing a tutorial on how to use the investigated technique, the study points out its relevance for organizational culture field.
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Rossoni, L., Gonçalves, C. P., da Silva, M. P., & Gonçalves, A. F. (2020). Mapping Organizational Culture Schemas Based on Correlational Class Analysis: A Tutorial. Journal of Contemporary Administration, 25(1), e200096. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-7849rac2021200096
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References
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Basov, N., & Brennecke, J. (2017). Structure, content and meaning of organizational networks: Extending network thinking. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 53, 87-112. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0733-558X20170000053005
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Calori, R. & Sarnin, P. (1991). Corporate culture and economic performance: a French study. Organization Studies, 12(1), 49-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/017084069101200104
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Emirbayer, M. (1997). Manifesto for a Relational Sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 103(2), 281-317. https://doi.org/10.1086/231209
Ferreira, M., Assmar, E., Estol, K., Helena, M., & Cisne, M. (2002). Desenvolvimento de um instrumento brasileiro para avaliação da cultura organizacional. Estudos de Psicologia, 7(2), 271-280. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-294X2002000200008
Garro, L. C. (2000). Remembering what one knows and the construction of the past: A comparison of cultural consensus theory and cultural schema theory. Ethos, 28(3), 275-319. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2000.28.3.275
Geisen, T., Hassler, B., Wagner, S., Buys, N., Randall, C., Harder, H., ... & Scott, L. (2019). Raising Awareness and Appreciation: Employee Perspectives on Disability Management in Swiss Companies. International Journal of Disability Management, 14(2019), e1. https://doi.org/10.1017/idm.2019.1
Goldberg, A. (2011). Mapping shared understandings using relational class analysis: The case of the cultural omnivore reexamined. American Journal of Sociology, 116(5), 1397-1436. https://doi.org/10.1086/657976
Good, B. H., De Montjoye, Y. A., & Clauset, A. (2010). Performance of modularity maximization in practical contexts. Physical Review E, 81(4), 046106. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.81.046106
Hair, J., Jr., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2018). Multivariate Data Analysis (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.
Harris, S. (1994). Organizational culture and individual sensemaking: A schema-based perspective. Organization Science, 5(3), 309-321. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.5.3.309
Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D., & Sanders, G. (1990). Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(2), 286-316. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393392
Hunzaker, M., & Valentino, L. (2019). Mapping cultural schemas: From theory to method. American Sociological Review, 84(5), 950-981. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419875638
Jennrich, R. I. (1970). An asymptotic χ2 test for the equality of two correlation matrices. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 65(330), 904-912. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1970.10481133
Knoll, M., Neves, P., Schyns, B., & Meyer, B. (2020). A multi‐level approach to direct and indirect relationships between organizational voice climate, team manager openness, implicit voice theories, and silence. Applied Psychology. 0(0), 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12242
Langfield-Smith, K. (1992). Exploring the need for a shared cognitive map. Journal of Management Studies, 29(3), 349-368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.1992.tb00669.x
MacQueen, J. (2020). The flow of organizational culture: New thinking and theory for better understanding and process. Bethel, AK: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25685-2
Martin, J. L. (2000). The relation of aggregate statistics on beliefs to culture and cognition. Poetics, 28(1), 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-422X(00)00010-3
Martin, J. L. (2002). Power, authority, and the constraint of belief systems. American Journal of Sociology, 107(4), 861-904. https://doi.org/10.1086/343192
Miranda, S., Kim, I., & Summers, J. D. (2015). Jamming with social media: How cognitive structuring of organizing vision facets affects IT innovation diffusion. MIS Quarterly, 39(3), 591-614. https://doi.org/10.25300/MISQ/2015/39.3.04
Mohr, J. & White, H. (2008). How to Model an Institution. Theory and Society, 37, 485-512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-008-9066-0
Netemeyer, R., Bearden, W., & Sharma, S. (2003). Scaling procedures: Issues and applications. Thousand Oaks: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412985772
Newman, M. E. (2006). Modularity and community structure in networks. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences, 103(23), 8577-8582. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0601602103
Nunnaly, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory (2nd ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Oberg, A., Korff, V., & Powell, W. (2017). Culture and Connectivity Intertwined: Visualizing Organizational Fields as Relational Structures and Meaning Systems. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 53, 17-47. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0733-558X20170000053001
Raines, S. (2003). Perceptions of legitimacy and efficacy in international environmental management standards: The impact of the participation gap. Global Environmental Politics, 3(3), 47-73. https://doi.org/10.1162/152638003322469277
Rawlings, C., & Childress, C. (2019). Emergent Meanings: Reconciling Dispositional and Situational Accounts of Meaning-Making from Cultural Objects. American Journal of Sociology, 124(6), 1763-1809. https://doi.org/10.1086/703203
Reisyan, G. (2016). Neuro-organizational culture: A new approach to understanding human behavior and interaction in the workplace. Cologne: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22147-2
Rofcanin, Y., Las Heras, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2017). Family supportive supervisor behaviors and organizational culture: Effects on work engagement and performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(2), 207-217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000036
Romney, A. K., Weller, S. C., & Batchelder, W. H. (1986). Culture as consensus: A theory of culture and informant accuracy. American Anthropologist, 88(2), 313-338. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1986.88.2.02a00020
Schein, E. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smircich, L. (1983). Concepts of Culture and Organizational Analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28(3), 339-358. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392246
Strauss, C. & Quinn, N. (1997). A cognitive theory of cultural meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139167000
Wood, M. L., Stoltz, D. S., Van Ness, J., & Taylor, M. A. (2018). Schemas and frames. Sociological Theory, 36(3), 244-261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735275118794981
Wu, A. (2014). Ideological polarization over a China-as-superpower mindset: An exploratory charting of belief systems among Chinese Internet users, 2008-2011. International Journal of Communication, 8(2014), 2650-2679. Retrieved from https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/2346/1212
Zerubavel, E. (1997). Social Mindscapes: An Invitation to Cognitive Sociology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Arditi, D., Nayak, S., & Damci, A. (2017). Effect of organizational culture on delay in construction. International Journal of Project Management, 35(2),136-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2016.10.018
Aßfalg, A., & Erdfelder, E. (2012). CAML-Maximum likelihood consensus analysis. Behavior Research Methods, 44(1), 189-201. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0138-0
Baldassarri, D., & Goldberg, A. (2014). Neither ideologues nor agnostics: Alternative voters’ belief system in an age of partisan politics. American Journal of Sociology, 120(1), 45-95. https://doi.org/10.1086/676042
Bansal, P., & Clelland, I. (2004). Talking trash: Legitimacy, impression management, and unsystematic risk in the context of the natural environment. Academy of Management Journal, 47(1), 93-103. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159562
Barbet, B. (2020). Nobody seems to be fully representing me: Differential inter-attitudinal cohesion systems and their effects on satisfaction with the political system. Electoral Studies, 64, 102116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102116
Basov, N., & Brennecke, J. (2017). Structure, content and meaning of organizational networks: Extending network thinking. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 53, 87-112. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0733-558X20170000053005
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Boutyline, A. (2017). Improving the measurement of shared cultural schemas with correlational class analysis: Theory and method. Sociological Science, 4(15), 353-393. https://doi.org/10.15195/v4.a15
Boutyline, A., & Vaisey, S. (2017). Belief network analysis: A relational approach to understanding the structure of attitudes. American Journal of Sociology, 122(5), 1371-1447. https://doi.org/10.1086/691274
Calori, R. & Sarnin, P. (1991). Corporate culture and economic performance: a French study. Organization Studies, 12(1), 49-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/017084069101200104
Corritore, M., Goldberg, A., & Srivastava, S. (2020). Duality in diversity: How intrapersonal and interpersonal cultural heterogeneity relate to firm performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(2), 359-394. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839219844175
Daenekindt, S. (2017). On the structure of dispositions. Transposability of and oppositions between aesthetic dispositions. Poetics, 62, 43-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2017.01.004
Daenekindt, S. (2019). Out of tune. How people understand social exclusion at concerts. Poetics, 74, 101341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2018.12.002
Daenekindt, S., Koster, W., & Van der Waal, J. (2017). How people organise cultural attitudes: cultural belief systems and the populist radical right. West European Politics, 40(4), 791-811. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2016.1271970
DiMaggio, P. (1997). Culture and Cognition. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 263-87. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.263
DiMaggio, P., & Goldberg, A. (2018). Searching for Homo economicus: Variation in Americans’ construals of and attitudes toward markets. European Journal of Sociology, 59(2), 151-189. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003975617000558
DiMaggio, P., Sotoudeh, R., Goldberg, A., & Shepherd, H. (2018). Culture out of attitudes: Relationality, population heterogeneity and attitudes toward science and religion in the US. Poetics, 68, 31-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2017.11.001
Emirbayer, M. (1997). Manifesto for a Relational Sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 103(2), 281-317. https://doi.org/10.1086/231209
Ferreira, M., Assmar, E., Estol, K., Helena, M., & Cisne, M. (2002). Desenvolvimento de um instrumento brasileiro para avaliação da cultura organizacional. Estudos de Psicologia, 7(2), 271-280. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-294X2002000200008
Garro, L. C. (2000). Remembering what one knows and the construction of the past: A comparison of cultural consensus theory and cultural schema theory. Ethos, 28(3), 275-319. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2000.28.3.275
Geisen, T., Hassler, B., Wagner, S., Buys, N., Randall, C., Harder, H., ... & Scott, L. (2019). Raising Awareness and Appreciation: Employee Perspectives on Disability Management in Swiss Companies. International Journal of Disability Management, 14(2019), e1. https://doi.org/10.1017/idm.2019.1
Goldberg, A. (2011). Mapping shared understandings using relational class analysis: The case of the cultural omnivore reexamined. American Journal of Sociology, 116(5), 1397-1436. https://doi.org/10.1086/657976
Good, B. H., De Montjoye, Y. A., & Clauset, A. (2010). Performance of modularity maximization in practical contexts. Physical Review E, 81(4), 046106. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.81.046106
Hair, J., Jr., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2018). Multivariate Data Analysis (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.
Harris, S. (1994). Organizational culture and individual sensemaking: A schema-based perspective. Organization Science, 5(3), 309-321. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.5.3.309
Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D., & Sanders, G. (1990). Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(2), 286-316. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393392
Hunzaker, M., & Valentino, L. (2019). Mapping cultural schemas: From theory to method. American Sociological Review, 84(5), 950-981. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122419875638
Jennrich, R. I. (1970). An asymptotic χ2 test for the equality of two correlation matrices. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 65(330), 904-912. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1970.10481133
Knoll, M., Neves, P., Schyns, B., & Meyer, B. (2020). A multi‐level approach to direct and indirect relationships between organizational voice climate, team manager openness, implicit voice theories, and silence. Applied Psychology. 0(0), 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12242
Langfield-Smith, K. (1992). Exploring the need for a shared cognitive map. Journal of Management Studies, 29(3), 349-368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.1992.tb00669.x
MacQueen, J. (2020). The flow of organizational culture: New thinking and theory for better understanding and process. Bethel, AK: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25685-2
Martin, J. L. (2000). The relation of aggregate statistics on beliefs to culture and cognition. Poetics, 28(1), 5-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-422X(00)00010-3
Martin, J. L. (2002). Power, authority, and the constraint of belief systems. American Journal of Sociology, 107(4), 861-904. https://doi.org/10.1086/343192
Miranda, S., Kim, I., & Summers, J. D. (2015). Jamming with social media: How cognitive structuring of organizing vision facets affects IT innovation diffusion. MIS Quarterly, 39(3), 591-614. https://doi.org/10.25300/MISQ/2015/39.3.04
Mohr, J. & White, H. (2008). How to Model an Institution. Theory and Society, 37, 485-512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-008-9066-0
Netemeyer, R., Bearden, W., & Sharma, S. (2003). Scaling procedures: Issues and applications. Thousand Oaks: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412985772
Newman, M. E. (2006). Modularity and community structure in networks. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences, 103(23), 8577-8582. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0601602103
Nunnaly, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory (2nd ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Oberg, A., Korff, V., & Powell, W. (2017). Culture and Connectivity Intertwined: Visualizing Organizational Fields as Relational Structures and Meaning Systems. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 53, 17-47. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0733-558X20170000053001
Raines, S. (2003). Perceptions of legitimacy and efficacy in international environmental management standards: The impact of the participation gap. Global Environmental Politics, 3(3), 47-73. https://doi.org/10.1162/152638003322469277
Rawlings, C., & Childress, C. (2019). Emergent Meanings: Reconciling Dispositional and Situational Accounts of Meaning-Making from Cultural Objects. American Journal of Sociology, 124(6), 1763-1809. https://doi.org/10.1086/703203
Reisyan, G. (2016). Neuro-organizational culture: A new approach to understanding human behavior and interaction in the workplace. Cologne: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22147-2
Rofcanin, Y., Las Heras, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2017). Family supportive supervisor behaviors and organizational culture: Effects on work engagement and performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(2), 207-217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000036
Romney, A. K., Weller, S. C., & Batchelder, W. H. (1986). Culture as consensus: A theory of culture and informant accuracy. American Anthropologist, 88(2), 313-338. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1986.88.2.02a00020
Schein, E. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smircich, L. (1983). Concepts of Culture and Organizational Analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28(3), 339-358. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392246
Strauss, C. & Quinn, N. (1997). A cognitive theory of cultural meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139167000
Wood, M. L., Stoltz, D. S., Van Ness, J., & Taylor, M. A. (2018). Schemas and frames. Sociological Theory, 36(3), 244-261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735275118794981
Wu, A. (2014). Ideological polarization over a China-as-superpower mindset: An exploratory charting of belief systems among Chinese Internet users, 2008-2011. International Journal of Communication, 8(2014), 2650-2679. Retrieved from https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/2346/1212
Zerubavel, E. (1997). Social Mindscapes: An Invitation to Cognitive Sociology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.