Retention of Civil Organizations Members and Political Participation: Possible Relationships
Open Data
Main Article Content
Dias Rafael Magul
Carlos Eduardo Cavalcante
Abstract
Objective: to explore the influence of retention of civil society organizations (CSOs) members on political participation. Theoretical framework: members of CSOs are likely to engage in various political activities. The propensity of members to participate in political practices may be influenced by their retention, which enables the development of democratic competencies and values, civic skills and virtues, and other political resources that foster political engagement. Methods: an explanatory quantitative research was carried out, using data from 234 members of CSOs in Mozambique, collected through a questionnaire consisting of validated scales of members’ retention and political participation. Structural equation modeling was performed to test the five research hypotheses, using weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted (WLSMV) as the estimation method, considering member retention practices as a second-order construct to explain each of the dimensions of political participation. Results: The hypothesis testing pointed to the non-rejection of two hypotheses, demonstrating that: member retention practices significantly explain political contact; and member retention practices significantly explain civic engagement. Conclusion: the study demonstrates that the propensity of CSOs members to participate in various political practices can be explained by member retention, which adds value to the literature. The findings contribute to human resource management in CSOs seeking to foster individual capacity to participate in democratic political processes, as well as those aiming to promote the expansion of democracy in society.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
Download data is not yet available.
Article Details
How to Cite
Magul, D. R., & Cavalcante, C. E. (2024). Retention of Civil Organizations Members and Political Participation: Possible Relationships. Journal of Contemporary Administration, 28(4), e240041. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-7849rac2024240041.en
Section
Theoretical-empirical Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Since mid-February of 2023, the authors retain the copyright relating to their article and grant the journal RAC, from ANPAD, the right of first publication, with the work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0), as stated in the article’s PDF document. This license provides that the article published can be shared (allows you to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format) and adapted (allows you to remix, transform, and create from the material for any purpose, even commercial) by anyone.
After article acceptance, the authors must sign a Term of Authorization for Publication, which is sent to the authors by e-mail for electronic signature before publication.
References
Aggeborn, L., Lajevardi, N., & Nyman, P. (2020). Disentangling the impact of civil association membership on political participation: Evidence from Swedish panel data. British Journal of Political Science, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123419000772
Andion, C. (2005). A gestão no campo da economia solidária: particularidades e desafios. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 9(1), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1415-65552005000100005
Ayala, L. J. (2000). Trained for democracy: The differing effects of voluntary and involuntary organizations on political participation. Political Research Quarterly, 53(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290005300105
Bandalos, D. L. (2014). Relative performance of categorical diagonally weighted least squares and robust maximum likelihood estimation. Structural Equation Modeling, 21(1), 102– 116. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.859510
Bean, C. (1991). Participation and political protest: A causal model with Australian evidence. Political Behavior, 13(3), 253– 283. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992922
Boulding, C. E. (2010). NGOs and political participation in weak democracies: Subnational evidence on protest and voter turnout from Bolivia. Journal of Politics, 72(2), 456–468. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990922
Brito, L. (2019). A Frelimo, o Marxismo e a construção do Estado nacional 1962-1983. IESE. Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Chaimite, E. (2014). Das revoltas à s marchas: emergência de um repertório de acção colectiva em Moçambique. In LuÃs de Brito, C. N. Castel-Branco, S. Chichava, S. Forquilha, & A. Francisco (Eds.), Desafios para Moçambique 2014 (pp. 83–98). IESE.
Costa, F. J. (2011). Mensuração e desenvolvimento de escalas: Aplicações em Administração. Ciência Moderna Ltda.
Darch, C. (2018). Uma história de sucesso que correu mal? O conflito moçambicano e o processo de paz numa perspectiva histórica. Peace and Security Series, 30.
Dhanpat, N., Modau, F. D., Lugisani, P., Mabojane, R., & Phiri, M. (2018). Exploring employee retention and intention to leave within a call centre. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(0), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v16i0.905
DiStefano, C., & Morgan, G. B. (2014). A comparison of diagonal weighted least squares robust estimation techniques for ordinal data. Structural Equation Modeling, 21(3), 425– 438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915373
Döckel, A., Basson, J. S., & Coetzee, M. (2006). The effect of retention factors on organisational commitment: An investigation of high technology employees. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 4(2), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v4i2.91
Dore, G. M. D., & Jackson, K. D. (2020). Problems of measurement of the relationship between civil society and democracy when using survey data. Social Indicators Research, 149(1), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-019-02235-4
Ekman, J., & Amnå, E. (2012). Political participation and civic engagement: Towards a new typology. Human Affairs, 22(3), 283–300. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13374-012-0024-1
Encarnación, O. G. (2017). Civil society and the consolidation of democracy in Spain. Political Science Quarterly, 116(1), 53–79. Fahmy, E. (2006). Social capital and civic action. Young, 14(2), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/1103308806062736
Ferreira, N., & Mujajati, E. (2017). Career meta-capacities and retention factors of recruitment advertising agencies: An exploratory study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 27(5), 405– 411. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2017.1379659
Ferreira, N., & Potgieter, I. L. (2018). Career-related dispositional factors in relation to retention within the retail sector: An exploratory study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(5), 400– 406. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2018.1527545
Finney, S. J., DiStefano, C., & Kopp, J. (2016). Overview of estimation methods and preconditions for their application with structural equation modelling. In K. Schweizer & C. DiStefani (Eds.), Principles and methods of test construction (pp. 134–165). Hogrefe.
Fung, A. (2003). Associations and democracy: Between theories, hopes, and realities. Annual Review of Sociology, 29(1), 515–539. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100134
Gani, K., Potgieter, I., & Coetzee, M. (2020). Dispositions of agency as explanatory mechanisms of employees’ satisfaction with retention practices. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 30(2), 143– 150. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2020.1744278
Haider, M., Rasli, A., Akhtar, C. S., Yusoff, R. B. M., Malik, O. M., Aamir, A., Arif, A., Naveed, S., & Tariq, F. (2015). The impact of human resource practices on employee retention in the telecom sector. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 5(2), 63–69.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2009). Análise multivariada de dados (6th ed.). Bookman.
Hong, E., Hao, L., Kumar, R., Ramendran, C., & Kadiresan, V. (2012). An effectiveness of human resource management practices on employee retention in institute of higher learning: A regression analysis. International Journal of Business Research and Management, 3(2), 60–79.
Honwana, A. (2020). Que polÃtica e polÃtica para quem? Juventude e engajamento polÃtico em Moçambique. In D. Rosário, E. Guambe, & E. Salema (Eds.), Democracia Multipartidária em Moçambique (pp. 255–272). Minerva Print.
Hutcheson, G. D., & Sofroniou, N. (1999). The multivariate social scientist: Introductory statistics using generalized linear models. Sage Publications.
Imna, M., & Hassan, Z. (2015). Influence of human resource management practices on employee retention in Maldives retail industry. International Journal of Accounting and Business Management, 3(1), 50–80. https://doi.org/10.24924/ijabm/2015.04/v3.iss1/50.80
Instituto Nacional de EstatÃstica. (2017). As instituições sem fins lucrativos em Moçambique: Resultados do segundo Censo Nacional (2014–2015). https://mozdata.ine.gov.mz/index.php/catalog/78/study-description
Ivaldi, E., Bonatti, G., & Soliani, R. (2017). An indicator for the measurement of political participation: The case of Italy. Social Indicators Research, 132(2), 605–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1303-8
Jaysawal, N. (2013). Civil society, democratic space, and social work. SAGE Open, 3(4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013504934
Kalaycioglu, E., & Turan, I. (1981). Measuring political participation: A cross-cultural application. Comparative Political Studies, 14(1), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041408101400106
Kashyap, V., & Rangnekar, S. (2014). A structural equation model for measuring the impact of employee retention practices on employee’s turnover intentions: An Indian perspective. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 1(2), 221–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/2322093714549109
Kim, B., & Hoewe, J. (2020). Developing contemporary factors of political participation. Social Science Journal, 00(00), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/03623319.2020.1782641
Lee, A.-R., & Glasure, Y. U. (2007). Social capital and political participation in South Korea. Asian Affairs: An American Review, 34(2), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.3200/aafs.34.2.101-118
Lei n. 8, de 18 de Julho de 1991 (1991). Regula o direito a livre associação. Boletim da República de Moçambique. I Série, n. 29. https://archive.gazettes.africa/archive/mz/1991/mzgovernment-gazette-series-i-supplement-dated-1991-07-18-no-29.pdf
Li, C. H. (2016). Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data: Comparing robust maximum likelihood and diagonally weighted least squares. Behavior Research Methods, 48(3), 936–949. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0619-7
Magul, D. R., & Cavalcante, C. E. (2022). Efeito dominó: organizações da sociedade civil, retenção de membros e participação polÃtica cidadã em Moçambique – proposições teóricas. Revista Administração Em Diálogo - RAD, 24(2), 93–109. https://doi.org//10.23925/2178-0080.2022v24i2.54211
Magul, D. R., & Cavalcante, C. E. (2023). Desenvolvimento e Validação de uma Escala de Participação PolÃtica. Revista Eletrônica de Administração, 29(2), 364–387. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-2311.385.130267
McVey, A., & Vowles, J. (2005). Virtuous circle or cul de sac? Social capital and political participation in New Zealand. Political Science, 57(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/003231870505700102
Ohme, J., Vreese, C. H., & Albæk, E. (2017). From theory to practice : how to apply van Deth’s conceptual map in empirical political participation. Acta Polit. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-017-0056-y
Presbitero, A., Roxas, B., & Chadee, D. (2016). Looking beyond HRM practices in enhancing employee retention in BPOs: focus on employee–organisation value fit. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(6), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1035306
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. In L. Crothers & C. Lockhart (Eds.), Culture and Politics (pp. 223–234). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-62397-6
Quaranta, M. (2012). The rise of unconventional political participation in Italy : Measurement equivalence and trends, 1976-2009. Bulletin of Italian Politics, 4(2), 251–276.
Rahbarqazi, M., & Noei Baghban, S. M. (2020). The link between social capital and political participation and its impact on iranian youth. Teorija in Praksa, 57(3), 909–927.
Razali, N. M., & Wah, Y. B. (2011). Power comparisons of Shapiro- Wilk, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Lilliefors and Anderson- Darling tests. Journal of Statistical Modeling and Analytics, 2(1), 13–14.
Rocca, R. M. (1998). Moçambique, da Guerra à Paz: História de uma mediação insólita. Livraria Universitaria (UEM). Samuel, M. O., & Chipunza, C. (2009). Employee retention and turnover: Using motivational variables as a panacea. African Journal of Business Management, 3(9), 410–415. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM09.125
Sanjeevkumar, V., & Wei, W. (2012). A case study on determinants of human resource practices influencing retention of employees in Kedah State Development Corporation , Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Social Research (IJBSR), 2(2), 42–53.
Shibiti, R. (2019). Satisfaction with retention factors in relation to job embeddedness of public school teachers. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(2015), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v17i0.1161
Shibiti, R. (2020). Public school teachers’ satisfaction with retention factors in relation to work engagement. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 46, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v46i0.1675
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (5th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
Talò, C., & Mannarini, T. (2014). Measuring participation: Development and validation the participatory behaviors Scale. Social Indicators Research, 123(3), 799–816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0761-0
Teorell, J. (2003). Linking social capital to political participation: Voluntary associations and networks of recruitment in Sweden. Scandinavian Political Studies, 26(1), 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9477.00079
Teorell, J., Torcal, M., & Montero, J. R. (2007). Political participation: Mapping the terrain. In J. W. van Deth, J. R. Montero, & A. Westholm (Eds.), Citizenship and Involvement in European Democracies: A Comparative Analysis (pp. 334–357). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203965757
Theocharis, Y., & Van Deth, J. W. (2018). The continuous expansion of citizen participation: A new taxonomy. European Political Science Review, 10(1), 139–163. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755773916000230
Uhlin, A. (2009). Which characteristics of civil society organizations support what aspects of democracy? Evidence from post-communist Latvia. International Political Science Review, 30(3), 271–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512109105639
Ulzurrun, L. M. D. (2002). Associational membership and social capital in comparative perspective: A note on the problems of measurement. Politics and Society, 30(3), 497–523. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329202030003005
Van Deth, J. W. (1986). A note on measuring political participation in comparative research. Quality and Quantity, 20(2), 261–272.
Van Deth, J. W. (2014). A conceptual map of political participation. Acta Politica, 49(3), 349–367. https://doi.org/10.1057/ap.2014.6
Van Deth, J. W. (2016). What is political participation? In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics (pp. 1–17). https://doi. org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.68
Van Dyk, J., & Coetzee, M. (2012). Retention factors in relation to organisational commitment in medical and information technology services. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v10i2.433
Wallman-Lundåsen, S. (2015). Civil society and political participation: What type of political participation is influenced by community level involvement in civil society? Swiss Political Science Review, 21(1), 140–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12140
Wijesiri, N. R. A. S. S., Paranagama, G. S., Sirirwardhana, M. M. A. S., Thilakarathna, D. L. N. C., Weerarathna, R. ., & Pathirana, U. P. G. . (2019). The impact of HR practices on employee retention; A case of BPO sector, Sri Lanka. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 9(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijhrs.v9i1.14050
Yousuf, S., & Siddqui, D. A. (2019). Factors influencing employee retention: A Karachi based comparative study on IT and banking industry. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 9(1), 42–62. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijhrs.v9i1.14111
Zúñiga, H. G. De, Copeland, L., & Bimber, B. (2014). Political consumerism: Civic engagement and the social media connection. New Media & Society, 16(4), 488–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813487960
Andion, C. (2005). A gestão no campo da economia solidária: particularidades e desafios. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 9(1), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1415-65552005000100005
Ayala, L. J. (2000). Trained for democracy: The differing effects of voluntary and involuntary organizations on political participation. Political Research Quarterly, 53(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290005300105
Bandalos, D. L. (2014). Relative performance of categorical diagonally weighted least squares and robust maximum likelihood estimation. Structural Equation Modeling, 21(1), 102– 116. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.859510
Bean, C. (1991). Participation and political protest: A causal model with Australian evidence. Political Behavior, 13(3), 253– 283. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992922
Boulding, C. E. (2010). NGOs and political participation in weak democracies: Subnational evidence on protest and voter turnout from Bolivia. Journal of Politics, 72(2), 456–468. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990922
Brito, L. (2019). A Frelimo, o Marxismo e a construção do Estado nacional 1962-1983. IESE. Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Chaimite, E. (2014). Das revoltas à s marchas: emergência de um repertório de acção colectiva em Moçambique. In LuÃs de Brito, C. N. Castel-Branco, S. Chichava, S. Forquilha, & A. Francisco (Eds.), Desafios para Moçambique 2014 (pp. 83–98). IESE.
Costa, F. J. (2011). Mensuração e desenvolvimento de escalas: Aplicações em Administração. Ciência Moderna Ltda.
Darch, C. (2018). Uma história de sucesso que correu mal? O conflito moçambicano e o processo de paz numa perspectiva histórica. Peace and Security Series, 30.
Dhanpat, N., Modau, F. D., Lugisani, P., Mabojane, R., & Phiri, M. (2018). Exploring employee retention and intention to leave within a call centre. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(0), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v16i0.905
DiStefano, C., & Morgan, G. B. (2014). A comparison of diagonal weighted least squares robust estimation techniques for ordinal data. Structural Equation Modeling, 21(3), 425– 438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915373
Döckel, A., Basson, J. S., & Coetzee, M. (2006). The effect of retention factors on organisational commitment: An investigation of high technology employees. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 4(2), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v4i2.91
Dore, G. M. D., & Jackson, K. D. (2020). Problems of measurement of the relationship between civil society and democracy when using survey data. Social Indicators Research, 149(1), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-019-02235-4
Ekman, J., & Amnå, E. (2012). Political participation and civic engagement: Towards a new typology. Human Affairs, 22(3), 283–300. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13374-012-0024-1
Encarnación, O. G. (2017). Civil society and the consolidation of democracy in Spain. Political Science Quarterly, 116(1), 53–79. Fahmy, E. (2006). Social capital and civic action. Young, 14(2), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/1103308806062736
Ferreira, N., & Mujajati, E. (2017). Career meta-capacities and retention factors of recruitment advertising agencies: An exploratory study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 27(5), 405– 411. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2017.1379659
Ferreira, N., & Potgieter, I. L. (2018). Career-related dispositional factors in relation to retention within the retail sector: An exploratory study. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(5), 400– 406. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2018.1527545
Finney, S. J., DiStefano, C., & Kopp, J. (2016). Overview of estimation methods and preconditions for their application with structural equation modelling. In K. Schweizer & C. DiStefani (Eds.), Principles and methods of test construction (pp. 134–165). Hogrefe.
Fung, A. (2003). Associations and democracy: Between theories, hopes, and realities. Annual Review of Sociology, 29(1), 515–539. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100134
Gani, K., Potgieter, I., & Coetzee, M. (2020). Dispositions of agency as explanatory mechanisms of employees’ satisfaction with retention practices. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 30(2), 143– 150. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2020.1744278
Haider, M., Rasli, A., Akhtar, C. S., Yusoff, R. B. M., Malik, O. M., Aamir, A., Arif, A., Naveed, S., & Tariq, F. (2015). The impact of human resource practices on employee retention in the telecom sector. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 5(2), 63–69.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2009). Análise multivariada de dados (6th ed.). Bookman.
Hong, E., Hao, L., Kumar, R., Ramendran, C., & Kadiresan, V. (2012). An effectiveness of human resource management practices on employee retention in institute of higher learning: A regression analysis. International Journal of Business Research and Management, 3(2), 60–79.
Honwana, A. (2020). Que polÃtica e polÃtica para quem? Juventude e engajamento polÃtico em Moçambique. In D. Rosário, E. Guambe, & E. Salema (Eds.), Democracia Multipartidária em Moçambique (pp. 255–272). Minerva Print.
Hutcheson, G. D., & Sofroniou, N. (1999). The multivariate social scientist: Introductory statistics using generalized linear models. Sage Publications.
Imna, M., & Hassan, Z. (2015). Influence of human resource management practices on employee retention in Maldives retail industry. International Journal of Accounting and Business Management, 3(1), 50–80. https://doi.org/10.24924/ijabm/2015.04/v3.iss1/50.80
Instituto Nacional de EstatÃstica. (2017). As instituições sem fins lucrativos em Moçambique: Resultados do segundo Censo Nacional (2014–2015). https://mozdata.ine.gov.mz/index.php/catalog/78/study-description
Ivaldi, E., Bonatti, G., & Soliani, R. (2017). An indicator for the measurement of political participation: The case of Italy. Social Indicators Research, 132(2), 605–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-016-1303-8
Jaysawal, N. (2013). Civil society, democratic space, and social work. SAGE Open, 3(4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013504934
Kalaycioglu, E., & Turan, I. (1981). Measuring political participation: A cross-cultural application. Comparative Political Studies, 14(1), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041408101400106
Kashyap, V., & Rangnekar, S. (2014). A structural equation model for measuring the impact of employee retention practices on employee’s turnover intentions: An Indian perspective. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 1(2), 221–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/2322093714549109
Kim, B., & Hoewe, J. (2020). Developing contemporary factors of political participation. Social Science Journal, 00(00), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/03623319.2020.1782641
Lee, A.-R., & Glasure, Y. U. (2007). Social capital and political participation in South Korea. Asian Affairs: An American Review, 34(2), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.3200/aafs.34.2.101-118
Lei n. 8, de 18 de Julho de 1991 (1991). Regula o direito a livre associação. Boletim da República de Moçambique. I Série, n. 29. https://archive.gazettes.africa/archive/mz/1991/mzgovernment-gazette-series-i-supplement-dated-1991-07-18-no-29.pdf
Li, C. H. (2016). Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data: Comparing robust maximum likelihood and diagonally weighted least squares. Behavior Research Methods, 48(3), 936–949. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0619-7
Magul, D. R., & Cavalcante, C. E. (2022). Efeito dominó: organizações da sociedade civil, retenção de membros e participação polÃtica cidadã em Moçambique – proposições teóricas. Revista Administração Em Diálogo - RAD, 24(2), 93–109. https://doi.org//10.23925/2178-0080.2022v24i2.54211
Magul, D. R., & Cavalcante, C. E. (2023). Desenvolvimento e Validação de uma Escala de Participação PolÃtica. Revista Eletrônica de Administração, 29(2), 364–387. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-2311.385.130267
McVey, A., & Vowles, J. (2005). Virtuous circle or cul de sac? Social capital and political participation in New Zealand. Political Science, 57(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/003231870505700102
Ohme, J., Vreese, C. H., & Albæk, E. (2017). From theory to practice : how to apply van Deth’s conceptual map in empirical political participation. Acta Polit. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-017-0056-y
Presbitero, A., Roxas, B., & Chadee, D. (2016). Looking beyond HRM practices in enhancing employee retention in BPOs: focus on employee–organisation value fit. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(6), 635–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1035306
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. In L. Crothers & C. Lockhart (Eds.), Culture and Politics (pp. 223–234). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-62397-6
Quaranta, M. (2012). The rise of unconventional political participation in Italy : Measurement equivalence and trends, 1976-2009. Bulletin of Italian Politics, 4(2), 251–276.
Rahbarqazi, M., & Noei Baghban, S. M. (2020). The link between social capital and political participation and its impact on iranian youth. Teorija in Praksa, 57(3), 909–927.
Razali, N. M., & Wah, Y. B. (2011). Power comparisons of Shapiro- Wilk, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Lilliefors and Anderson- Darling tests. Journal of Statistical Modeling and Analytics, 2(1), 13–14.
Rocca, R. M. (1998). Moçambique, da Guerra à Paz: História de uma mediação insólita. Livraria Universitaria (UEM). Samuel, M. O., & Chipunza, C. (2009). Employee retention and turnover: Using motivational variables as a panacea. African Journal of Business Management, 3(9), 410–415. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM09.125
Sanjeevkumar, V., & Wei, W. (2012). A case study on determinants of human resource practices influencing retention of employees in Kedah State Development Corporation , Malaysia. International Journal of Business and Social Research (IJBSR), 2(2), 42–53.
Shibiti, R. (2019). Satisfaction with retention factors in relation to job embeddedness of public school teachers. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(2015), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v17i0.1161
Shibiti, R. (2020). Public school teachers’ satisfaction with retention factors in relation to work engagement. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 46, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v46i0.1675
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using Multivariate Statistics (5th ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
Talò, C., & Mannarini, T. (2014). Measuring participation: Development and validation the participatory behaviors Scale. Social Indicators Research, 123(3), 799–816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0761-0
Teorell, J. (2003). Linking social capital to political participation: Voluntary associations and networks of recruitment in Sweden. Scandinavian Political Studies, 26(1), 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9477.00079
Teorell, J., Torcal, M., & Montero, J. R. (2007). Political participation: Mapping the terrain. In J. W. van Deth, J. R. Montero, & A. Westholm (Eds.), Citizenship and Involvement in European Democracies: A Comparative Analysis (pp. 334–357). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203965757
Theocharis, Y., & Van Deth, J. W. (2018). The continuous expansion of citizen participation: A new taxonomy. European Political Science Review, 10(1), 139–163. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755773916000230
Uhlin, A. (2009). Which characteristics of civil society organizations support what aspects of democracy? Evidence from post-communist Latvia. International Political Science Review, 30(3), 271–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512109105639
Ulzurrun, L. M. D. (2002). Associational membership and social capital in comparative perspective: A note on the problems of measurement. Politics and Society, 30(3), 497–523. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329202030003005
Van Deth, J. W. (1986). A note on measuring political participation in comparative research. Quality and Quantity, 20(2), 261–272.
Van Deth, J. W. (2014). A conceptual map of political participation. Acta Politica, 49(3), 349–367. https://doi.org/10.1057/ap.2014.6
Van Deth, J. W. (2016). What is political participation? In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics (pp. 1–17). https://doi. org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.68
Van Dyk, J., & Coetzee, M. (2012). Retention factors in relation to organisational commitment in medical and information technology services. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v10i2.433
Wallman-Lundåsen, S. (2015). Civil society and political participation: What type of political participation is influenced by community level involvement in civil society? Swiss Political Science Review, 21(1), 140–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12140
Wijesiri, N. R. A. S. S., Paranagama, G. S., Sirirwardhana, M. M. A. S., Thilakarathna, D. L. N. C., Weerarathna, R. ., & Pathirana, U. P. G. . (2019). The impact of HR practices on employee retention; A case of BPO sector, Sri Lanka. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 9(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijhrs.v9i1.14050
Yousuf, S., & Siddqui, D. A. (2019). Factors influencing employee retention: A Karachi based comparative study on IT and banking industry. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 9(1), 42–62. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijhrs.v9i1.14111
Zúñiga, H. G. De, Copeland, L., & Bimber, B. (2014). Political consumerism: Civic engagement and the social media connection. New Media & Society, 16(4), 488–506. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813487960