Nudge Policies in COVID-19 Context: A Necessary Action or Ethical Dilemma?
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Ana Luize Correa
Maria Clara Figueiredo Dalla Costa Ames
Marcello Beckert Zappellini
Abstract
Objective: the aim of this study is to discuss nudges in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic context, bringing back some reflections on ethics and revising them in the light of the new setting imposed by the pandemic. Theoretical approach: the theoretical framework of Behavioral Economics was the basis for nudges’ analysis, while utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics were the classic moral theories used to reflect on ethical aspects. Methods: we undertook a literature review about nudges searched through the latest studies about this subject applied to COVID-19 mitigation. In the ethical discussion section, we used classical references to articulate the nudge theory with the following moral theories: utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Results: our findings indicate that the trend intervention during the pandemic is ‘nudging messages’ and ‘increase people’s commitment,’ mainly to nudge people toward the desired behavior and increase policy adherence. Many experiments did not show significant results, and some drawbacks in policies’ applications indicate that nudges might be revised in crisis scenarios, such as a pandemic outbreak. The ethical discussion section relates three moral theories that justify some of the nudge’s aspects. Conclusions: this paper showed some flaws and inconsistencies in nudge theory and its application during the pandemic that can be solved by discussing ethical aspects. We suggest that connecting these problems with moral views might be a solution for some deadlocks found in the nudge theory.
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Correa, A. L., Ames, M. C. F. D. C., & Zappellini, M. B. (2022). Nudge Policies in COVID-19 Context: A Necessary Action or Ethical Dilemma?. Journal of Contemporary Administration, 26(5), e210033. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-7849rac2022210033.en
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Theoretical-empirical Articles
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References
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Benartzi, S., Beshears, J., Milkman, K. L., Sunstein, C. R., Thaler, R. H., Shankar, M., Tucker-Ray, W., Congdon, W. J., & Galing, S. (2017). Should governments invest more in nudging? Psychological Science, 28(8), 1041-1055. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617702501
Bolderston, A. (2008). Writing an effective literature review. Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences, 39(2), 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2008.04.009
Bunker, D. (2020). Who do you trust? The digital destruction of shared situational awareness and the COVID-19 infodemic. International Journal of Information Management, 55, 102201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102201
Camerer, C. (2005, August). Behavioral economics. Proceedings of the World Congress of the Econometric Society, London, England. 90. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294444849_Behavioral_Economics
Camerer, C., Issacharoff, S., Loewenstein, G., Donoghue, T. O., & Rabin, M. (2003). Regulation for conservatives: Behavioral economics and the case for “asymmetric paternalism”. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 151(3), 1211–1254. Retrieved from https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review/vol151/iss3/15
Cohen, S. (2013). Nudging and informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 13(6), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2013.781704
Debnath, R., & Bardhan, R. (2020). India nudges to contain COVID-19 pandemic: A reactive public policy analysis using machine-learning based topic modeling. PLoS One, 15(9), e0238972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238972
Fateh-Moghadam, B., & Gutmann, T. (2014). Governing [through] autonomy: The moral and legal limits of “soft paternalism.” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 17(3), 383–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-013-9450-3
Favero, N., & Pedersen, M. J. (2020). How to encourage “togetherness by keeping apart” amid COVID-19? The ineffectiveness of prosocial and empathy appeals. Journal of Behavioral Public Administration, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.30636/jbpa.32.167
Gigerenzer, G. (2015). On the supposed evidence for libertarian paternalism. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-015-0248-1
Guala, F., & Mittone, L. (2015). A political justification of nudging. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 385–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-015-0241-8
Hale, T., Angrist, N., Cameron-Blake, E., Hallas, L., Kira, B., Majumdar, S., & Webster, S. (2020). Variation in government responses to COVID-19 [BSG Working Paper Series, #BSG-WP-2020/032, Version 8.0]. University of Oxford, Blavatnik School of Government, Oxford, United Kingdom. Retrieved from https://www.bsg.ox.ac.uk/research/publications/variation-government-responses-covid-19
Hausman, D. M., & Welch, B. (2010). Debate: To nudge or not to nudge. The Journal of Political Philosophy, 18(1), 123–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2009.00351.x
Heukelom, F. (2014). Behavioral economics: A history. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ho, S. M., Seraj, S., Yee, K., Liu, X., & Erlebacher, G. (2020, October). A context-aware social distancing nudge for public health in response to COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling & Prediction and Behavior Representation in Modeling and Simulation. Washington, DC, USA. Retrieved from http://sbp-brims.org/2020/proceedings/papers/covid/SBP-BRiMS_2020_paper_81.pdf
Hume, S., John, P., Sanders, M., & Stockdale, E. (2020). Nudge in the time of Coronavirus: The compliance to behavioral messages during crisis. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3644165
Islam, A. K. M. N., Laato, S., Talukder, S., & Sutinen, E. (2020). Misinformation sharing and social media fatigue during COVID-19: An affordance and cognitive load perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 159, 120201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120201
Kahneman, D. (2012) Rápido e devagar: Duas formas de pensar. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva.
Kant, I. (2005). Metafísica dos costumes. São Paulo: Edipro.
Kim, J., Giroux, M., Gonzalez-Jimenez, H., Jang, S., Kim, S., Park, J., Kim, J.-E., Lee, J. C., & Choi, Y. K. (2020). Nudging to reduce the perceived threat of coronavirus. Journal of Advertising, 49(5), 633-647. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2020.1806154
Knight, D. R., (2021). Government expression and the Covid-19 pandemic: Advising, nudging, urging, commanding. Public Law Review, 31(4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.26686/wgtn.13551605
Laato, S., Islam, A. K. M. N., Islam, M. N., & Whelan, E. (2020). What drives unverified information sharing and cyberchondria during the COVID-19 pandemic? European Journal of Information Systems, 29(3), 288–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085X.2020.1770632
Leal, C. C., & Oliveira, B. (2020). Choice architecture: Nudging for sustainable behavior. In C. F. Machado & J. P. Davim (Eds.), Sustainable management for managers and engineers (Chap. 1). London: ISTE and Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119804345.ch1
Leonard, T. C. (2008). Richard H. Thaler, Cass R. Sunstein, nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Constitutional Political Economy, 19, 356–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10602-008-9056-2
Lunn, P. D., Belton, C. A., Lavin, C., McGowan, F. P., Timmons, S., & Robertson, D. A. (2020). Using behavioral science to help fight the Coronavirus. Journal of Behavioral Public Administration, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.30636/jbpa.31.147
MacIntyre, A. (2007). After virtue: A study in moral theory (3 ed.). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
Mendes-Da-Silva, W. (2019). Contribuições e limitações de revisões narrativas e revisões sistemáticas na área de negócios. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 23(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-7849rac2019190094
Minoi, J.-L., Mohamad, F. S., Arnab, S., & Hock, E. L. P. (2020, December). Nudge theory and social innovation: An analysis of citizen and government initiatives during Covid-19 outbreak in Malaysia. Proceedings of the IEEE Region 10 Humanitarian Technology Conference - R10-HTC, Kuching, Malaysia, 8. https://doi.org/10.1109/R10-HTC49770.2020.9357050
Niker, F. (2018). Policy-led cultivation: Can we nudge citizens towards developing virtues?. In T. Harrison & D. I. Walker (Eds.), The theory and practice of virtue education (pp. 153-167). London: Routledge.
Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychological Science, 31(7), 770–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939054
Petit, P. (1997). Consequentialism. In P. Singer (Org.), A companion to ethics (pp. 230-240). Oxford: Blackwell.
Pfattheicher, S., Nockur, L., Böhm, R., Sassenrath, C., & Petersen, M. B. (2020). The emotional path to action: Empathy promotes physical distancing and wearing of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Science, 31(11), 1363–1373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620964422
Pierre, J. (2020). Nudges against pandemics: Sweden’s COVID-19 containment strategy in perspective. Policy and Society, 39(3), 478–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/14494035.2020.1783787
Pops, G. M. (1994). A teleological approach to administrative ethics. In T. L. Cooper (Ed.), Handbook of administrative ethics (pp. 157-166). New York: Marcel Dekker.
Ross, W. D., & Stratton-Lake, P. (2002). The right and the good. Oxford: Clarendon Press and Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0199252653.001.0001
Riemer, K., Ciriello, R., Peter, S., & Schlagwein, D. (2020). Digital contact-tracing adoption in the COVID-19 pandemic: IT governance for collective action at the societal level. European Journal of Information Systems, 29(6), 731-745. https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085X.2020.1819898
Saghai, Y. (2013). Salvaging the concept of nudge. Journal of Medical Ethics, 39(8), 487–493. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2012-100727
Sanz, P., & Fontrodona, J. (2019). Moderation as a moral competence: Integrating perspectives for a better understanding of temperance in the workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 155(4), 981-994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3899-x
Schneewind, J. B. (2005). A invenção da autonomia. São Leopoldo: Unisinos.
Sibony, A. L. (2020). The UK covid-19 response: A behavioural irony? European Journal of Risk Regulation, 11(2), 350–357. https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2020.22
Sison, A. J. G., & Ferrero, I. (2015). How different is neo-Aristotelian virtue from positive organizational virtuousness? Business Ethics: A European Review, 24(S2), S78–S98. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12099
Smart, J. J. C., (1998) An outline of a system of utilitarian ethics. In J. J. C. Smart & B. Williams (Eds.), Utilitarianism: For and against. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sunstein, C. R. (2015). Nudges, agency, and abstraction: A reply to critics. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 511–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-015-0266-z
Sunstein, C. R. (2016). The ethics of nudging. Yale Journal on Regulation, 32, 413-450. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.13051/8225
Thaler, R. (2015). Misbehaving: The making of behavioral economics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2009) Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness (2 ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.
Tirole, J. (2017). Economics for the common good. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Trout, J. D. (2005). Paternalism and cognitive bias. Law and Philosophy, 24(4), 393–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10982-004-8197-3
Weijers, R. J., & Koning, B. B. (2020). Nudging to increase hand hygiene during the COVID-19 pandemic: A field experiment. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 53(3), 353-357. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000245
West, R., Michie, S., Rubin, G. J., & Amlôt, R. (2020). Applying principles of behaviour change to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(5), 451–459. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0887-9
Wilkinson, T. M. (2013). Nudging and manipulation. Political Studies, 61(2), 341–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00974.x
World Bank Group (2015). World development report 2015: Mind, society, and behavior. Washington, DC: The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0342-0
Yan, B., Zhang, X., Wu, L., Zhu, H., & Chen, B. (2020). Why do countries respond differently to COVID-19? A comparative study of Sweden, China, France, and Japan. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6–7), 762–769. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074020942445
Zappellini, M. B. (2013, September). Ética e administração pública: Uma abordagem a partir de três modelos normativos. Proceedings of the Encontro Nacional da Associação Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Administração, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil, 37.
Ariely, D. (2008). Previsivelmente irracional: As forças ocultas que influenciam as nossas decisões. Alfragide: Estrela Polar.
Aristotle. (1999). Nicomachean ethics (2 ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co.
Barton, A., & Grüne-Yanoff, T. (2015). From libertarian paternalism to nudging—and beyond. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 341–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-015-0268-x
Benartzi, S., Beshears, J., Milkman, K. L., Sunstein, C. R., Thaler, R. H., Shankar, M., Tucker-Ray, W., Congdon, W. J., & Galing, S. (2017). Should governments invest more in nudging? Psychological Science, 28(8), 1041-1055. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617702501
Bolderston, A. (2008). Writing an effective literature review. Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences, 39(2), 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2008.04.009
Bunker, D. (2020). Who do you trust? The digital destruction of shared situational awareness and the COVID-19 infodemic. International Journal of Information Management, 55, 102201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102201
Camerer, C. (2005, August). Behavioral economics. Proceedings of the World Congress of the Econometric Society, London, England. 90. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294444849_Behavioral_Economics
Camerer, C., Issacharoff, S., Loewenstein, G., Donoghue, T. O., & Rabin, M. (2003). Regulation for conservatives: Behavioral economics and the case for “asymmetric paternalism”. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 151(3), 1211–1254. Retrieved from https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review/vol151/iss3/15
Cohen, S. (2013). Nudging and informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 13(6), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2013.781704
Debnath, R., & Bardhan, R. (2020). India nudges to contain COVID-19 pandemic: A reactive public policy analysis using machine-learning based topic modeling. PLoS One, 15(9), e0238972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238972
Fateh-Moghadam, B., & Gutmann, T. (2014). Governing [through] autonomy: The moral and legal limits of “soft paternalism.” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 17(3), 383–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10677-013-9450-3
Favero, N., & Pedersen, M. J. (2020). How to encourage “togetherness by keeping apart” amid COVID-19? The ineffectiveness of prosocial and empathy appeals. Journal of Behavioral Public Administration, 3(2). https://doi.org/10.30636/jbpa.32.167
Gigerenzer, G. (2015). On the supposed evidence for libertarian paternalism. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-015-0248-1
Guala, F., & Mittone, L. (2015). A political justification of nudging. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 385–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-015-0241-8
Hale, T., Angrist, N., Cameron-Blake, E., Hallas, L., Kira, B., Majumdar, S., & Webster, S. (2020). Variation in government responses to COVID-19 [BSG Working Paper Series, #BSG-WP-2020/032, Version 8.0]. University of Oxford, Blavatnik School of Government, Oxford, United Kingdom. Retrieved from https://www.bsg.ox.ac.uk/research/publications/variation-government-responses-covid-19
Hausman, D. M., & Welch, B. (2010). Debate: To nudge or not to nudge. The Journal of Political Philosophy, 18(1), 123–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2009.00351.x
Heukelom, F. (2014). Behavioral economics: A history. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ho, S. M., Seraj, S., Yee, K., Liu, X., & Erlebacher, G. (2020, October). A context-aware social distancing nudge for public health in response to COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Computing, Behavioral-Cultural Modeling & Prediction and Behavior Representation in Modeling and Simulation. Washington, DC, USA. Retrieved from http://sbp-brims.org/2020/proceedings/papers/covid/SBP-BRiMS_2020_paper_81.pdf
Hume, S., John, P., Sanders, M., & Stockdale, E. (2020). Nudge in the time of Coronavirus: The compliance to behavioral messages during crisis. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3644165
Islam, A. K. M. N., Laato, S., Talukder, S., & Sutinen, E. (2020). Misinformation sharing and social media fatigue during COVID-19: An affordance and cognitive load perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 159, 120201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120201
Kahneman, D. (2012) Rápido e devagar: Duas formas de pensar. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva.
Kant, I. (2005). Metafísica dos costumes. São Paulo: Edipro.
Kim, J., Giroux, M., Gonzalez-Jimenez, H., Jang, S., Kim, S., Park, J., Kim, J.-E., Lee, J. C., & Choi, Y. K. (2020). Nudging to reduce the perceived threat of coronavirus. Journal of Advertising, 49(5), 633-647. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2020.1806154
Knight, D. R., (2021). Government expression and the Covid-19 pandemic: Advising, nudging, urging, commanding. Public Law Review, 31(4), 391–397. https://doi.org/10.26686/wgtn.13551605
Laato, S., Islam, A. K. M. N., Islam, M. N., & Whelan, E. (2020). What drives unverified information sharing and cyberchondria during the COVID-19 pandemic? European Journal of Information Systems, 29(3), 288–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085X.2020.1770632
Leal, C. C., & Oliveira, B. (2020). Choice architecture: Nudging for sustainable behavior. In C. F. Machado & J. P. Davim (Eds.), Sustainable management for managers and engineers (Chap. 1). London: ISTE and Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119804345.ch1
Leonard, T. C. (2008). Richard H. Thaler, Cass R. Sunstein, nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Constitutional Political Economy, 19, 356–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10602-008-9056-2
Lunn, P. D., Belton, C. A., Lavin, C., McGowan, F. P., Timmons, S., & Robertson, D. A. (2020). Using behavioral science to help fight the Coronavirus. Journal of Behavioral Public Administration, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.30636/jbpa.31.147
MacIntyre, A. (2007). After virtue: A study in moral theory (3 ed.). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
Mendes-Da-Silva, W. (2019). Contribuições e limitações de revisões narrativas e revisões sistemáticas na área de negócios. Revista de Administração Contemporânea, 23(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-7849rac2019190094
Minoi, J.-L., Mohamad, F. S., Arnab, S., & Hock, E. L. P. (2020, December). Nudge theory and social innovation: An analysis of citizen and government initiatives during Covid-19 outbreak in Malaysia. Proceedings of the IEEE Region 10 Humanitarian Technology Conference - R10-HTC, Kuching, Malaysia, 8. https://doi.org/10.1109/R10-HTC49770.2020.9357050
Niker, F. (2018). Policy-led cultivation: Can we nudge citizens towards developing virtues?. In T. Harrison & D. I. Walker (Eds.), The theory and practice of virtue education (pp. 153-167). London: Routledge.
Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychological Science, 31(7), 770–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939054
Petit, P. (1997). Consequentialism. In P. Singer (Org.), A companion to ethics (pp. 230-240). Oxford: Blackwell.
Pfattheicher, S., Nockur, L., Böhm, R., Sassenrath, C., & Petersen, M. B. (2020). The emotional path to action: Empathy promotes physical distancing and wearing of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Science, 31(11), 1363–1373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620964422
Pierre, J. (2020). Nudges against pandemics: Sweden’s COVID-19 containment strategy in perspective. Policy and Society, 39(3), 478–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/14494035.2020.1783787
Pops, G. M. (1994). A teleological approach to administrative ethics. In T. L. Cooper (Ed.), Handbook of administrative ethics (pp. 157-166). New York: Marcel Dekker.
Ross, W. D., & Stratton-Lake, P. (2002). The right and the good. Oxford: Clarendon Press and Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0199252653.001.0001
Riemer, K., Ciriello, R., Peter, S., & Schlagwein, D. (2020). Digital contact-tracing adoption in the COVID-19 pandemic: IT governance for collective action at the societal level. European Journal of Information Systems, 29(6), 731-745. https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085X.2020.1819898
Saghai, Y. (2013). Salvaging the concept of nudge. Journal of Medical Ethics, 39(8), 487–493. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2012-100727
Sanz, P., & Fontrodona, J. (2019). Moderation as a moral competence: Integrating perspectives for a better understanding of temperance in the workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 155(4), 981-994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3899-x
Schneewind, J. B. (2005). A invenção da autonomia. São Leopoldo: Unisinos.
Sibony, A. L. (2020). The UK covid-19 response: A behavioural irony? European Journal of Risk Regulation, 11(2), 350–357. https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2020.22
Sison, A. J. G., & Ferrero, I. (2015). How different is neo-Aristotelian virtue from positive organizational virtuousness? Business Ethics: A European Review, 24(S2), S78–S98. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12099
Smart, J. J. C., (1998) An outline of a system of utilitarian ethics. In J. J. C. Smart & B. Williams (Eds.), Utilitarianism: For and against. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sunstein, C. R. (2015). Nudges, agency, and abstraction: A reply to critics. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 6(3), 511–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-015-0266-z
Sunstein, C. R. (2016). The ethics of nudging. Yale Journal on Regulation, 32, 413-450. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.13051/8225
Thaler, R. (2015). Misbehaving: The making of behavioral economics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Thaler, R., & Sunstein, C. (2009) Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness (2 ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.
Tirole, J. (2017). Economics for the common good. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Trout, J. D. (2005). Paternalism and cognitive bias. Law and Philosophy, 24(4), 393–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10982-004-8197-3
Weijers, R. J., & Koning, B. B. (2020). Nudging to increase hand hygiene during the COVID-19 pandemic: A field experiment. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 53(3), 353-357. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000245
West, R., Michie, S., Rubin, G. J., & Amlôt, R. (2020). Applying principles of behaviour change to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(5), 451–459. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0887-9
Wilkinson, T. M. (2013). Nudging and manipulation. Political Studies, 61(2), 341–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2012.00974.x
World Bank Group (2015). World development report 2015: Mind, society, and behavior. Washington, DC: The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0342-0
Yan, B., Zhang, X., Wu, L., Zhu, H., & Chen, B. (2020). Why do countries respond differently to COVID-19? A comparative study of Sweden, China, France, and Japan. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6–7), 762–769. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074020942445
Zappellini, M. B. (2013, September). Ética e administração pública: Uma abordagem a partir de três modelos normativos. Proceedings of the Encontro Nacional da Associação Nacional de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Administração, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil, 37.